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Water transport is the oldest mode of transport. Water transport is generally classified into three types namely inland water ways rivers, canals, big lakes , domestic coast ways and sea ways. Water transport is more suitable for mass movement of bulk shipments and low value commodities. It is because, water transport cost per tonne per kilometre is very much low.

Thus, water transport is preferred to reduce the costs when speed of delivery is not important. Water transport is used to transport bulk wood, iron ore, coal, chemicals, petroleum products etc.

Fixed costs relating to water transport are relatively less compared to rail network, but relatively when compared to motor carriers. Suitable for mass movement of bulk shipments. Transport cost per tonne per kilometre is very much low. Disadvantages: 1. Not suitable for quick transport of goods. If the origin and destination of movement are away from water way, it needs more handing charges and also requires supplementing with rail or motor trucks.

Needless to emphasize that increased volume of domestic as well as foreign trade improves the industry, national income and employment opportunities. Increased incomes and improved employment opportunities in turn not only promote savings and thereby investment, but also pushup the aggregate demand for goods. Thus, trade is identified as engine of economic growth. Hence, transportation sector plays an important role in the promotion of domestic as well as international trade.

As per the available statistics, in , world GDP fell by 2. Thus, the global economic crisis and the collapse of world trade in had major impact on the transport sector. Hence, improving efficiency through the maximum utilization of transportation equipment and personnel is a major concern. To reduce transportation costs and to improve customer service, finding the best paths that a vehicle should follow through a network of roads, rail lines, shipping lanes, or air navigational routes that will minimize time or distance is a frequent decision problem.

In this context, Route Management concerns the selection of route between origins and destinations in transportation network. Routes indicate paths taken by trucks, rail, cars, buses, or individuals travelling from place to place. In route management the basic problem is due to variations in origin and destination points such as 1 separate and single origin and destination points 2 multiple origin and destination points.

Fixed expenses include administrative cost of taking the transportation order, time to position the vehicle for loading or unloading, invoicing and equipment cost. These costs do not vary with the volume of shipment. In transport pricing, the costs that are constant over the normal operating volume of the carrier are fixed cost.

However, in the long run all costs are variable costs. Variable Cost: Variable cost is that cost which changes with the services or volume. If a truck is driven more miles certain costs increase proportionately. Fuel costs, wages, maintenance costs, and tire replacement depend on output.

Variable costs include line-haul costs such as fuel and labour, equipment maintenance, handling and pick-up and delivery. Line-haul transportation rates are based on two important dimensions such as distance and shipper volume. Joint costs: A joint cost occurs when the production of one product or service requires or offers the production of another product or service. It now has engines available in Los Angeles to provide back-haul service to New York or additional transportation form Los Angeles.

The cost of placing the train in Los Angeles is a joint cost with the New York to LA run and whatever runs follows it. Fixed and variable costs can also be joint costs. All modes incur joint costs to some extent. Common Costs: Common costs cannot be directly associated with a product or activity. Since this creates confusion, we normally assign activities percentages of these common costs. How much of this repair cost should be allocated to the three different shipments?

Is it based on space used, weight or both? In transportation, common costs are significant and are found in all modes. It is extensively used in commercial aviation for both passengers and freight and model has also been adopted in the technology sector.

The Hub-Spoke distribution paradigm is a system of connections arranged like a chariot wheel, in which all traffic moves along spokes connected to the hub at the center.

This model is commonly used in industry particularly in transport, telecommunications and freight as well as in distributed computing. Thus, the principle of the modern intermodal transportation system is a network of intermodal terminals including ports that are mutually interlinked by high capacity double stack train routes and that serve as points of transfer between rail and truck modes.

The Hub-Spoke system is as shown in the following Diagram. Delta Airlines pioneered the method in But, it was made popular by Fed Ex Express Company in by using this method to run the airlines.

Routing all the traffic through the Hub actually makes the overall system more efficient. Truck routes should be formed around clusters of stops that are nearest to each other in order to minimize the inter-stop travel between them. When stops are to be served during different days of the week, the stops should be segmented into separate routing and scheduling problems for each day of the week. Efficient routes can be developed through building stop clusters around the farthest stop from the depot and then working back toward the depot.

Consignment or goods pass through more than one transport system. Consignment or goods in international trade pass through more than one carrier. Single operator or contractor completes the entire transportation of consignment. Ensures responsibility for safe custody of consignment. It involves simple documentation. Sea-Truck: This intermodal involves the shipment of goods in containers, which are transported on trucks to from seaports from to their points of origin destination for international exports imports.

Figure: 2. Sea-Rail: It involves the shipment of goods in containers on oceangoing vesselswhich are transported by rail on the surface leg line-haul movement.

The modal transfer process for the exchange of containers between containerships and railroad flat cars depends on the location of intermodal rail yards. The location of markets, i. The nature and extent of government regulation 4. The balance and imbalance of freight traffic in a market 5. Seasonality of product movement 6.

Whether the product is being transported domestically or internationally etc. Pipelines can be operated throughout the 24 hours and seven days per week without any interruption. Pipeline incurs higher fixed costs for the purpose of right — of way, construction, requirements of control stations and pumping capacity.

However, variable operating costs are extremely low on account of low amount of labour requirement. It also involves systems and processes that identify inventory requirements, set targets, provide replenishment techniques, report actual and projected inventory status and handle all functions related to the tracking and management of material.

Thus, Inventory management is primarily about specifying the shape and percentage of stocked goods. It is required at different locations within a facility or within many locations of a supply network to precede the regular and planned course of production and stock of materials.

This is the basic group of participants that creates a simple supply chain. Extended supply chains contain three additional types of participants. Finally, there is a whole category of companies who are service providers to other companies in the supply chain. These are companies who supply services in logistics, finance, marketing and information technology. Specialization of agricultural functions permitting the transport of temperature sensitive food products to distant markets.

Enables the distribution of vaccines and other pharmaceutical or biological products from single large facilities. Can support the specialization of production and economies of scale in distribution. This could involve specialized laboratories exchanging temperature sensitive components or large cold storage facilities servicing regional grocery markets. Timely distribution to the final consumer of perishables, namely grocery stores and restaurants.

Weightage to Content Marks Annual Examination 1. What is supply chain management? Explain the supply chain principles. Explain various types of intermodal freight movements. Discuss the Hub and Spoke system with suitable example showing diagrammatically the system OR 4. Explain various types of railway accidents. Examine any five functions of Warehouses with your own suitable examples?

Examine the intermodal relationships in transport. Discuss the advantages of multimodal transport system. Discuss the safety measures to be followed by big shopping malls dealing with a large variety of goods. Explain the functions of storage system with your own suitable examples. What are the objectives of material handling? Explain about disaster management in railways.

What type of hazards do you come across in a Pharma Company? Define the term logistics and explain it with your own examples. Distinguish between fluctuation and anticipation inventories with your own examples.

Explain the global and local impact of cold chain. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of rail network. Examine the need for stacking. Mention any three principles of material handling suitable in a four wheeler manufacturing Company. Explain any three reasons for road accidents? Point out any two precautions to be taken in the transportation of petroleum products. Examine the need of ISO in logistics. Distinguish between quality control and quality assurance with your own suitable examples.

How do you protect workers against hazards in Iron and steel industry? Stacks in pyramid or stepped form on two is a stepped stack Intermodal transport system involves only single operator.

Multimodal transportation system involves multiple documentation. Securing cargo in transit from theft or pilferage is a challenge. Chemical hazards a Wear ear plugs or ear muffs Noise hazards b Corrosive, irritating, toxic, flammable or carcinogenic Vibration hazard c occur most commonly in warehouse Thermal stress d sufficient cushioning or vibration absorbers on the seats Successful supply chain management, then, coordinates and integrates all of these activities into a seamless process.

It embraces and links all of the partners in the chain. In addition to the departments within the organization, these partners include vendors, carriers, third party companies, and information systems providers. Supply chains encompass the companies and the business activities needed to design, make, deliver, and use a product or service. Businesses depend on their supply chains to provide them with what they need to survive and thrive.

Every business fits into one or more supply chains and has a role to play in each of them. The pace of change and the uncertainty about how markets will evolve has made it increasingly important for companies to be aware of the supply chains, they participate in and to understand the roles that they play.

Those companies that learn how to build and participate in strong supply chains will have a substantial competitive advantage in their markets.

For instance, a wholesaler acts as a customer, when buying goods from manufacturers and then as a supplier when selling goods to retailers. A manufacturer buys raw materials from suppliers, assembles these into finished products and sells them to wholesalers. Milk moves through a farm, tanker collection, dairy, bottling plant, distributor and supermarket before we buy it.

A tooth brush starts its journey with a company extracting crude oil and then it passes through pipelines, refineries, chemical works, plastics companies, manufacturers, importers, wholesalers and retailers before finishing in your bath room. A sheet of paper moves through a string of organisations before it reaches your desk. People use different names for these chains of activities and organisations. When they emphasise the operations, they refer to the process; when they emphasise marketing, they call it a logistics channel; when they look at the value added, they call it a value chain; when they see how customer demands are satisfied, they call it a demand chain.

Here we are emphasising the movement of materials and use the most common term of supply chain. Supply-Chain Principles: There are seven principles as articulated by Andersen Consulting are as follows: 1. Segment customers based on service needs: Companies traditionally have grouped customers by industry, product, or trade channel and then provided the same level of service to everyone within a segment. Effective supply-chain management, by contrast, groups customers by distinct service needs–regardless of industry–and then tailors services to those particular segments.

Customise the Supply Chain Management network: In designing their Supply Chain Management network, companies need to focus intensely on the service requirements and profitability of the customer segments identified. The conventional approach of creating a “monolithic” Supply Chain Management network runs counter to successful supply-chain management. Listen to signals of market demand and plan accordingly: Sales and operations planning must span the entire chain to detect early warning signals of changing demand in ordering patterns, customer promotions, and so forth.

This demand-intensive approach leads to more consistent forecasts and optimal resource allocation. Differentiate product closer to the customer: Companies today no longer can afford to stock pile inventory to compensate for possible forecasting errors.

Instead, they need to postpone product differentiation in the manufacturing process closer to actual consumer demand. Beating multiple suppliers over the head for the lowest price is out, Andersen advises “Gain sharing” is in. Develop a supply-chain-wide technology strategy: As one of the cornerstones of successful supply-chain management, information technology must support multiple levels of decision making. It also should afford a clear view of the flow of products, services, and information.

Adopt channel-spanning performance measures: Excellent supply-chain measurement systems do more than just monitor internal functions. They adopt measures that apply to every link in the supply chain. Importantly, these measurement systems embrace both service and financial metrics such as each account’s true profitability. These principles are not easy to implement, because they run counter to ingrained functionally oriented thinking about how companies organise, operate, and serve customers.

The organisations that do persevere and build a successful supply chain have proved convincingly that you can please customers and enjoy growth by doing so. The following are different types of intermodal freight movements. Truck-Rail: This intermodal involves the shipment of trailers on railroad flatcars, the trailers being transported by trucks between points of origin and destination and intermodal ramps.

Barge-Truck: This intermodal involves the movement of goods in containers or trailers on barges that are transported on trucks for the surface leg of the shipment. The Hub-Spoke system is as shown in the following Diagram 3. The model is named after a bicycle wheel, which has a strong central hub with a series of connecting spokes. Hub-Spoke System This model is also applicable to other forms of transportation as follows: 1. Sea transport, where feeder ships transport shipping containers from different ports to a central container terminal to be loaded onto larger vessel.

Freight rail transport, where cargo is hauled to a central exchange terminal. At the terminal, shipping containers are loaded from one freight car to another and classification yards are used to sort freight cars into trains and divide them according to varying destinations.

Public transit utilizes various transport hubs to allow passengers to transfer between different lines or transportation modes. For passengers road transport, the spoke-hub model does not apply because drivers generally take the shortest or fastest route between two points. Head on collision: It is the collision on a single line railway.

It clearly means that at least one of the trains has passed a signal at danger. Or the signal man has made a major error. Head on collisions may occur at major junction due to similar reason. Rear end collision: A rear-end collision is a rail accident wherein a train crashes into another train in front of it. Bow winch: ‘ of 7. Anchor handling.

Fuel capacity: 89, gal. Berthing: 11 persons in 5 staterooms. Excellent condition. Light draft 12, loaded draft 16′. Bollard pull ahead: 98,lbs, Bollard pull astern 57,lbs. Bow winch, Markey. Tow winch Intercon, ‘ of 2. Capacities: Fuel ,gal, lube gal, potable water gal.

Accommodations for 12 people. Current ABS expires May GT 99, NT Air draft: Reduction gear: Reintjis 5. Endurance at max speed: 12 knots, distance at max speed 8, miles.

Generator: 75KW powered by Detroit Total berths: 8. Crew staterooms: 4. Capacities: Fuel 77, gal, potabl water 11, gal, lube oil 3, gal, ballast water 11, gal. Towing gear: Markey forward windlass. Located West Coast. Built , 2 available, ABS Loadline expires , ‘ x 34’ x Main engines: 2 Alco C diesel Lufkin reduction gears: 5. Generators: 2 98kw generators powered by 6-V Speed: 11kts. BP: 50 static tons, Capacities: , gal fuel, potable, gal lube. Located: Northeast US. Current ABS class and Loadline.

Voith Schneider Cyclorotor. Speed: 8 knots. Bollard pull 40 ton. Last drydocked Capacities: Fuel 20, gal, potable water 10, Accommodations: Berths 8, staterooms 4. Built , extensive records available, Built to ABS specifications.

A1 towing, all oceans. Laid up, active, classed. Bollard pull 55 tons. Fuel capacity: , gal. Tow winch: Intercontinental, 2,’ of 2×2″ tow wire. Located Hawaii. Must be sold foreign. ABS Loadline expired Nov. Fuel capacity: 79, gal. Towing gear: Single drum winch with 2,’ of 2″ stainless steel wire driven by GM 6V diesel.

Located New York. Currently in drydock US Gulf. Subchapter M when sold. Class ABS. Built , last drydocked Drydock included refurbishing, steel work and installing tier 2 engines. Main engines: 2 EMD E2. Propellers: 96″ x ” P Kort nozzles. Bollard pull: 60T. Capacities: Fuel 81, gal, fresh water 8, gal.

Bow winch: 1 drum, 2 Gypsies. Good clean condition. Price to be determined. GRT Deck space: sqft. Gensets: 2 Cummins 6BT5. Bollard pull: 42T. Speed: 12kts. Capacities: fuel 46, gal, water 17, gal. Located South America. Built , repowered , 91′ x 26′ x 9. Gears: Hindmarch-MWD reverse reduction gears at 2. Speed 13 knots. Boat has not been used in several years and the engines would need reworking.

Structurally the boat is in excellent shape. The operating company also has a shipyard and would be willing to do work on the boat. The price is negotiable. Located Canada. Built in China. Class: Lloyd’s Register A! Tug LMC. Deck space: Fixed pitch propellers. Gensets: 2 Cummins 6BT 5. Bollard pull: 40T. Capacities: fuel 58, gal, fresh water gal. Located Central America. Wheels: 96″ x 76″. Speed: 10 knots. Generators: 2 75 kw Capacities: Fuel 50, gal, potable water 1.

Towing gear: Intercon DD , tandem towing ability two drum. Anchor handling capability. Line pull , lbs, tow wire: 2,’ of 2″. Navigation, communications, electronics. GT Wheels: 90″x68″ 4-blade stainless steel.

Capacities: fuel 50, gal, water 10, gal, lube oil 1, gal. Accommodations: 4 berths, 8 bunks. Electronics, navigation, communication. Flanking rudder. Located Southeast USA. Displacement tons. Speed: Bollard pull 40 tons. Aux engines: 2 CAT C4. Bow thruster: bhp, hydraulically driven. Capacities: Fuel gal, fresh water gal, lube oil gal, dirty oil gal, bilge gal, sewage gal. Accommodations: Heat and air conditioning, space for 7, 3 single crew cabins, 2 double crew cabins, galley.

Located Southeast Asia. Steel construction. Towing winch: Smatco 44 single drum, 25ton line pull. Fuel capacity: 14, gal, potable water: 2, gal. Lube oil: gal. Generators: 3 GM 2 30 KW. Light boat speed: 10 kts. Additional information available: USCG uninspected towing and vessel examination, survey, wire rope and sling test, certificate from ABS dated Built , ‘ x 32′ x 16′, draft 14′, Air draft 60′ mast up, 40’ mast down.

Height of eye 35′. Bollard pull: 41 ton 82, Fuel capacity: 48,gal. Winch: Single drum Almon Johnson with ‘ of 2″ wire. Main engines: 3 Lister Blackstone, total HP Bollard pull: 40 tons. Towing winch: Single drum. Equipped with tow winch. Although this boat is stacked, the engines are started up periodically , the boat is on shore power and ready for use. Inspect in Louisiana.

Capacities: Fuel 58, gal, lube oil 1, gal, water 4, gal. Towing gear: Intercon double drum towing winch, with gypsy head, with 2,’ of 2″ towing wire driven by a single GM diesel engine. Pullmaster 25 hydraulic bridle winch. Good condition, ready to work.

Price to be Developed. Bollard pull: 28 tons direct. Speed 12 knots. Located New Zealand. Generators: 2 Yanmar 5KDL.

Fuel capacity: 13, gal. Accommodation for 7 crew in 3 single and 2 double staterooms. Reduction: 2. Installed Driving 4-blade bronze propeller in kort nozzle through new twin disc gears with test hours only.

Hydraulic clutch and mairne reverse reduction gear with 5. Accommodations: Galley. Hauled in to obtain condition for survey. Fuel capacity 38, gallons. Located Northeast USA. Main engines: 2 HP rpm, Bollard pull 25 ton. Speed 11 knots. Range nautical miles. Capacities: Fuel 60, gal, Fresh water 10, gallons. ABS Loadline. Year built Main engine: 2 CAT C Gears: TwinDisc Generators: 2 GM Capacities: Fuel 28,gal, Potable water 6,gal, Lube oil gal.

Navigation and Communication equipment. Height of eye 24′. Main engines: 2 CAT Lufkin RS reduction gear 5. Generators: 2 Detroit diesel , port 75kw at rpm, stb 55kw at rpm. Capacities: Fuel 32, gal, lube gal, waste oil gal, water 5, gal. Located Northeast US. Built , rebuilt , ‘ x 26’ x Manufactured , Drydocked May , current COI and extensive repairs and upgrades, blasting and paint, props, etc. Ready to work.

Built , 97′ OA Gear box: 3. Generators: 2 GM Detroits. Econ speed 8 knots, max speed 12 knots. Bollard pull: 28t. Accommodations: 7 total. Capacities: Fuel ton, potable water 17ton. In Drydock Will have 5-year certificate. Canadian Registry will be removed, not to be used in Eastern Canada.

Built , Inland tugs, coastal with good weather. Dims Bollard Pull 24 tons — only towing hook. Generators Baudouin and Sisu. Capacities fuel 40 cbm, FW 6 cbm and Luboil L — foamtank A battery also called a battery pack consists of multiple connected lithium-ion cells. Battery packs for large consumer electronics like laptop computers also contain temperature sensors, voltage regulator circuits, voltage taps , and charge-state monitors.

These components minimize safety risks like overheating and short circuiting. The vast majority of commercial Li-ion batteries are used in consumer electronics and electric vehicles.

More niche uses include backup power in telecommunications applications. Because lithium-ion batteries can have a variety of positive and negative electrode materials, the energy density and voltage vary accordingly. The open-circuit voltage is higher than in aqueous batteries such as lead—acid , nickel—metal hydride and nickel-cadmium. Eventually, increasing resistance will leave the battery in a state such that it can no longer support the normal discharge currents requested of it without unacceptable voltage drop or overheating.

Batteries with a lithium iron phosphate positive and graphite negative electrodes have a nominal open-circuit voltage of 3. Lithium nickel manganese cobalt NMC oxide positives with graphite negatives have a 3.

The charging procedure is performed at constant voltage with current-limiting circuitry i. In the past, lithium-ion batteries could not be fast-charged and needed at least two hours to fully charge. Current-generation cells can be fully charged in 45 minutes or less. In researchers demonstrated a small mAh capacity battery charged to 68 percent capacity in two minutes and a 3, mAh battery charged to 48 percent capacity in five minutes.

The device employed heteroatoms bonded to graphite molecules in the anode. Performance of manufactured batteries has improved over time. For example, from to the energy capacity per price of lithium ion batteries improved more than ten-fold, from 0. Differently sized cells with similar chemistry can also have different energy densities. Life of a lithium-ion battery is typically defined as the number of full charge-discharge cycles to reach a failure threshold in terms of capacity loss or impedance rise.

Calendar life is used to represent the whole life cycle of battery involving both the cycle and inactive storage operations. Battery cycle life is affected by many different stress factors including temperature, discharge current, charge current, and state of charge ranges depth of discharge.

To avoid this confusion, researchers sometimes use cumulative discharge [] defined as the total amount of charge Ah delivered by the battery during its entire life or equivalent full cycles, [] which represents the summation of the partial cycles as fractions of a full charge-discharge cycle. From this one can calculate the cost per kWh of the energy including the cost of charging. Over their lifespan batteries degrade gradually leading to reduced capacity due to a variety of chemical and mechanical changes to the electrodes.

In contrast, the calendar life of LiFePO 4 cells is not affected by high charge states. The layer is composed of electrolyte — carbonate reduction products that serve both as an ionic conductor and electronic insulator. It forms on both the anode and cathode termed a CEI and influences many performance parameters. Under typical operating conditions, the layer reaches a fixed thickness after the first few charges formation cycles , allowing the device to operate for years.

However, operation outside typical parameters can degrade the electrochemical interfaces via several reactions. Formation of the SEI consumes lithium ions, reducing the overall charge and discharge efficiency of the electrode material.

Five common exothermic degradation reactions can occur: []. Depending on the electrolyte and additives, [] common components of the SEI layer that forms on the anode include a mixture of lithium oxide, lithium fluoride and semicarbonates e. At elevated temperatures, alkyl carbonates in the electrolyte decompose into insoluble species such as Li 2 CO 3 that increases the film thickness.

This increases cell impedance and reduces cycling capacity. The randomness of the metallic lithium embedded in the anode during intercalation results in dendrites formation. Over time the dendrites can accumulate and pierce the separator, causing a short circuit leading to heat, fire or explosion. This process is referred to as thermal runaway. The copper anode current collector can dissolve into the electrolyte. Electrolyte degradation mechanisms include hydrolysis and thermal decomposition.

Under typical conditions, the equilibrium lies far to the left. However the presence of water generates substantial LiF, an insoluble, electrically insulating product. LiF binds to the anode surface, increasing film thickness.

PF 5 reacts with water to form hydrofluoric acid HF and phosphorus oxyfluoride. Phosphorus oxyfluoride in turn reacts to form additional HF and difluorohydroxy phosphoric acid. HF converts the rigid SEI film into a fragile one. On the cathode, the carbonate solvent can then diffuse onto the cathode oxide over time, releasing heat and potentially causing thermal runaway. Significant decomposition occurs at higher temperatures. Material loss of the spinel results in capacity fade.

As with the anode, excessive SEI formation forms an insulator resulting in capacity fade and uneven current distribution. Lithium-ion batteries can be a safety hazard since they contain a flammable electrolyte and may become pressurized if they become damaged.

A battery cell charged too quickly could cause a short circuit , leading to explosions and fires. Lithium-ion batteries have a flammable liquid electrolyte. Short-circuiting a battery will cause the cell to overheat and possibly to catch fire.

Around , large lithium-ion batteries were introduced in place of other chemistries to power systems on some aircraft; as of January [update] , there had been at least four serious lithium-ion battery fires, or smoke, on the Boeing passenger aircraft, introduced in , which did not cause crashes but had the potential to do so.

If a lithium-ion battery is damaged, crushed, or is subjected to a higher electrical load without having overcharge protection, then problems may arise. External short circuit can trigger a battery explosion. If overheated or overcharged, Li-ion batteries may suffer thermal runaway and cell rupture.

To reduce these risks, many lithium-ion cells and battery packs contain fail-safe circuitry that disconnects the battery when its voltage is outside the safe range of 3—4. Lithium battery packs, whether constructed by a vendor or the end-user, without effective battery management circuits are susceptible to these issues.

Poorly designed or implemented battery management circuits also may cause problems; it is difficult to be certain that any particular battery management circuitry is properly implemented. Lithium-ion cells are susceptible to stress by voltage ranges outside of safe ones between 2. Exceeding this voltage range results in premature aging and in safety risks due to the reactive components in the cells. Other safety features are required [ by whom?

These features are required because the negative electrode produces heat during use, while the positive electrode may produce oxygen. However, these additional devices occupy space inside the cells, add points of failure, and may irreversibly disable the cell when activated. Also, these features can not be applied to all kinds of cells, e. High current cells must not produce excessive heat or oxygen, lest there be a failure, possibly violent.

Instead, they must be equipped with internal thermal fuses which act before the anode and cathode reach their thermal limits. Replacing the lithium cobalt oxide positive electrode material in lithium-ion batteries with a lithium metal phosphate such as lithium iron phosphate LFP improves cycle counts, shelf life and safety, but lowers capacity.

As of , these ‘safer’ lithium-ion batteries were mainly used in electric cars and other large-capacity battery applications, where safety is critical.

IATA estimates that over a billion lithium and lithium-ion cells are flown each year. Extraction of lithium, nickel, and cobalt, manufacture of solvents, and mining byproducts present significant environmental and health hazards. Cobalt for Li-ion batteries is largely mined in the Congo see also Mining industry of the Democratic Republic of the Congo.

Manufacturing a kg of Li-ion battery takes about 67 megajoule MJ of energy. Since Li-ion batteries contain less toxic metals than other types of batteries which may contain lead or cadmium, [54] they are generally categorized as non-hazardous waste. Li-ion battery elements including iron, copper, nickel and cobalt are considered safe for incinerators and landfills. Lithium is less expensive than other metals used and is rarely recycled, [] but recycling could prevent a future shortage.

Accumulation of battery waste presents technical challenges and health hazards. Re-use of the battery is preferred over complete recycling as there is less embodied energy in the process. As these batteries are a lot more reactive than classical vehicle waste like tire rubber, there are significant risks to stockpiling used batteries. The pyrometallurgical method uses a high-temperature furnace to reduce the components of the metal oxides in the battery to an alloy of Co, Cu, Fe, and Ni.

This is the most common and commercially established method of recycling and can be combined with other similar batteries to increase smelting efficiency and improve thermodynamics.

The metal current collectors aid the smelting process, allowing whole cells or modules to be melted at once. At high temperatures, the polymers used to hold the battery cells together burn off and the metal alloy can be separated through a hydrometallurgical process into its separate components.

The slag can be further refined or used in the cement industry. The process is relatively risk-free and the exothermic reaction from polymer combustion reduces the required input energy. However, in the process, the plastics, electrolytes , and lithium salts will be lost. This method involves the use of aqueous solutions to remove the desired metals from the cathode.

The most common reagent is sulfuric acid. Once leached , the metals can be extracted through precipitation reactions controlled by changing the pH level of the solution.

Cobalt, the most expensive metal, can then be recovered in the form of sulfate, oxalate, hydroxide, or carbonate. In these procedures, concentrations of the various leached metals are premeasured to match the target cathode and then the cathodes are directly synthesized. The main issues with this method, however, is that a large volume of solvent is required and the high cost of neutralization. Although it’s easy to shred up the battery, mixing the cathode and anode at the beginning complicates the process, so they will also need to be separated.

Unfortunately, the current design of batteries makes the process extremely complex and it is difficult to separate the metals in a closed-loop battery system. Shredding and dissolving may occur at different locations. Direct recycling is the removal of the cathode or anode from the electrode, reconditioned, and then reused in a new battery.

Mixed metal-oxides can be added to the new electrode with very little change to the crystal morphology. The process generally involves the addition of new lithium to replenish the loss of lithium in the cathode due to degradation from cycling. Cathode strips are obtained from the dismantled batteries, then soaked in NMP , and undergo sonication to remove excess deposits.

This method is extremely cost-effective for noncobalt-based batteries as the raw materials do not make up the bulk of the cost. Direct recycling avoids the time-consuming and expensive purification steps, which is great for low-cost cathodes such as LiMn 2 O 4 and LiFePO 4. For these cheaper cathodes, most of the cost, embedded energy, and carbon footprint is associated with the manufacturing rather than the raw material.

The drawback of the method lies in the condition of the retired battery. In the case where the battery is relatively healthy, direct recycling can cheaply restore its properties. However, for batteries where the state of charge is low, direct recycling may not be worth the investment. The process must also be tailored to the specific cathode composition, and therefore the process must be configured to one type of battery at a time.

Extraction of raw materials for lithium ion batteries may present dangers to local people, especially land-based indigenous populations. Cobalt sourced from the Democratic Republic of the Congo is often mined by workers using hand tools with few safety precautions, resulting in frequent injuries and deaths.

A study of relationships between lithium extraction companies and indigenous peoples in Argentina indicated that the state may not have protected indigenous peoples’ right to free prior and informed consent , and that extraction companies generally controlled community access to information and set the terms for discussion of the projects and benefit sharing. Development of the Thacker Pass lithium mine in Nevada, USA has met with protests and lawsuits from several indigenous tribes who have said they were not provided free prior and informed consent and that the project threatens cultural and sacred sites.

Researchers are actively working to improve the power density, safety, cycle durability battery life , recharge time, cost, flexibility, and other characteristics, as well as research methods and uses, of these batteries.

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Rechargeable battery type. For the metal element, see Lithium. Main article: History of the lithium-ion battery. See also: Plug-in electric vehicle fire incidents. Further information: Environmental impacts of lithium-ion batteries. Main article: Battery recycling. Main article: Research in lithium-ion batteries. Archived from the original on 13 April Retrieved 23 April Retrieved 31 January Archived from the original PDF on 17 August Retrieved 7 October Retrieved 2 July Retrieved 11 June Bloomberg New Energy Finance.

Retrieved 6 January ISBN S2CID Retrieved 5 August High Energy Lithium Ion Cells”. Commercial lithium ion cells are now optimised for either high energy density or high power density. There is a trade off in cell design between the power and energy requirements.

Retrieved 10 October Nobel Prize. Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 1 January Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. Retrieved 29 July National Institute for Materials Science.

Retrieved 9 April National Academy of Engineering. Retrieved 12 October Archived from the original on 9 May E for Electric. Event occurs at — Retrieved 29 June — via YouTube. Project Drawdown. Retrieved 13 March Environmental Research Letters. Bibcode : ERL ISSN Retrieved 10 July Journal of Power Sources. Bibcode : JPS Advanced Materials. PMID Materials Research Bulletin.

Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry and Interfacial Electrochemistry. European Commission. Archived PDF from the original on 14 July Retrieved 20 October Energy Storage News. Department of Energy. October Shao et al. MRS Bulletin. July Nature Reviews Materials. Bibcode : NatRM

Find Forklifts in South Africa on Truck & Trailer Marketplaces.

Distinguish between private and public warehouses. The following are monthly costs incurred by Transport Company. Identify the basic costs of transportation. Rent of container Rs. Indian Oil Company wish supply LP gas to its customers for cooking purpose at cheaper rate by minimizing its transport costs? What is best means of transport?

Examine the need for inventory management. Describe the components of supply chain management. Explain the impact of cold chain, considering geographical perspective. Raw material inventories are indirect inventories.

Airlines are variable cost carriers. Pipe-lines are variable cost carriers. Intermodal transport system maximises costs and minimises revenue. Alliance of international industries increase in working costs. Balancing inventory reconciles supply availability with demand.

Match the following left hand side words with appropriate words from right hand side and appropriate alphabet in the braces Stow away a Incorporates weight and space considerations Density b Cost which does not change with the services or volume Variable cost c product dimensions and impact of the same on vehicle space utilization Fixed cost d cost which changes with the services or volume Answers: Section — A Q.

Logistics is the management of the flow of resources between the point of origin and the point of destination in order to meet some requirements, for example, customers or corporations. The resources managed in logistics can include physical items such as food, materials, equipment, liquids, and staff, as well as abstract items such as information, particles and energy. The term logistics comes from the late 19th century: from French logistique, from loger ‘to lodge’.

Logistics is considered to have originated in the military’s need to supply itself with arms, ammunition, and rations as it moved from a base to a forward position. In the ancient Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Empires, military officers with the title Logistikas were responsible for financial and supply distribution matters.

Logistic Functions: Business logistics is a series of separate activities or functions which all fall under a business firm’s logistics umbrella they are as follows: i.

Supply: Consider the supply of materials that you have as this would help meet your self- imposed quota for the company to profit. Transportation: This is where logistics management applies. A company should have the transportation services needed to move the products and deliver them in a timely and efficient manner to the customers. Facilities: Different companies employ different services according to their needs.

Each of them has a different facility which helps produce the products and services which they eventually offer to customers. These facilities should be tailor-made and fit the client’s and customer’s specifications. Services: From customer service to delivering an order on time, to resolving order-related problems, a company should employ a logistics management service provider which will provide all of these services.

Management and Administration: This is an aspect of logistics management which is common to all organizations. A well balanced and knowledgeable staff and leaders make for a better service-oriented company. In relation to this, here are the important factors that you should consider when employing a logistics management service provider that will best benefit your company.

Inbound Transportation: You should choose a logistics management service provider who will give out quotes for the inbound transportation costs of components. This might include the delivery of individual components to your production line. For a better price comparison, you may also ask if they can deal with clients who buy some or all of their components from a particular supplier. You can look for cost and time frame quotations that you can use to consider the service provider that is most cost-effective vii.

Outbound Transportation: Outbound transportation refers to the carriers which meet the customer’s needs. Different clients need various freight and carrier services and a logistics management service provider should be able to provide these individual needs. The deal can either be on an over-all operational basis, or on a per-shipment basis.

This provides a comprehensive solution for a company’s primary need for logistics. Choose a logistics management service provider, who will provide rate comparisons from different couriers to meet and handle the customer’s goals. The main point here is that you need to have somebody to handle and ship out your main products in a safe and timely manner. If a customer has a specific shipping need, would they be able to deliver and solve the problem? Should a serious delivery or shipping problem arise, they should be able to troubleshoot and come up with the perfect solution and at the same time soothe a customer’s ruffled feathers.

Keeping Customers Informed: The customers have the right to know the details about a particular order shipment. They should be informed of when the products were shipped, how it was shipped and who shipped it.

Some logistics management service provider gives out their contact numbers directly to their client’s customers. This would avoid a pointing of fingers should problems arise.

Also, there is online tracking information available for most couriers and carriers. All in all, you have to choose a logistics management service provider that would fit your company’s needs so that both of you will reap the benefits in the end. Logistics has developed from a series of separate activities largely based on transport, warehousing and procurement, where decisions were seen as largely operational or tactical.

As it evolved into a single function, the strategic impact of logistics has become more evident. Customer Satisfaction: Logistics plays an extremely important role in ensuring that customers get the right products at the right place at the right time. Transportation, warehousing, forecasting, inventory control and production planning all have a direct impact on customer satisfaction.

Figure: 1. Concept of Warehouse: We need different types of goods in our day-to-day life. We may buy some of these items in bulk and store them in our house. Similarly, businessmen also need a variety of goods for their use. Some of them may not be available all the time. But, they need those items throughout the year without any break.

Take the example of a sugar factory. It needs sugarcane as raw material for production of sugar. We know that sugarcane is produced during a particular period of the year. Since, sugar production takes place throughout the year, there is a need to supply sugarcane continuously. But how is it possible? Here storage of sugarcane in sufficient quantity is required. Again, after production of sugar it requires some time for sale or distribution.

Thus, the need for storage arises both for raw material as well as for finished products. Storage involves proper arrangement for preserving goods from the time of their production or purchase till the actual use.

Warehousing is defined as the storage of goods: raw materials, semi-finished goods, or finished goods. This includes a wide spectrum of facilities and locations that provide warehousing. Since, this is a point in the logistics system where goods are held for varying amounts of time, the flow is interrupted or stopped, thereby creating additional costs to the product.

In a macroeconomic sense, warehousing creates time utility for raw materials, industrial goods and finished products. It also increases the utility of goods by broadening their time availability to prospective customers.

Warehousing refers to the activities involving storage of goods on a large-scale in a systematic and orderly manner and making them available conveniently when needed. In other words, warehousing means holding or preserving goods in huge quantities from the time of their purchase or production till their actual use or sale.

Warehousing is one of the important auxiliaries to trade. It creates time utility by bridging the time gap between production and consumption of goods. Receiving: This includes the physical unloading of incoming transport, checking, recording of receipts and deciding where the received goods are to be put away in the warehouse.

It can also include such activities as unpacking and repackaging, quality control checks and temporary quarantine storage for goods awaiting clearance by quality control. Inspection: Quality and quantity check of the incoming goods for their required characteristics. Repackaging: Incoming lot may be having non-standard packaging, which may not be stored as it is in the respective location.

Put away: Binning and storing the goods in their respective locations including the temporary locations from the receiving docking area.

Storage: Binning the approved material in their respective locations. Picking often involves break bulk operations when goods are received from suppliers say whole pallet quantities, but ordered by customers in less than pallet quantity.

Order picking is important for achieving high levels of customer service; it traditionally also takes a high proportion of the total warehouse staff complement and is expensive. The good design and management of picking systems and operations are consequently vital to effective warehouse performance vii.

Sortation: This enables goods coming into a warehouse to be sorted into specific customer orders immediately on arrival. The goods then go directly to order collation.

Packing and shipping: Picked goods as per the customer order are consolidated and packed according to customer order requirement. It is shipped according to customer orders and respective destinations. Cross-docking: Move products directly from receiving to the shipping dock — these products are not at all stored in the specific locations. Maintaining stock availability for order picking is important for achieving high levels of order fill.

The modes may be related to transport vehicles or service operators. The modes of transport may be such as ship, rail, truck, aero plane, car, tram etc.

Thus, multimodal transport system relates to a single trip consisting of combination of modes between which the consignment has to make a transfer. The transportation of consignment from the origin i. The Contractor manages and co-ordinates the total task and ensures responsibility for safe custody of consignment. The system also ensures continuous movement of the goods along the best route by the most efficient and cost-effective means.

The system also involves simplified documentation. These two terms have very similar meanings, i. Figure display multimodal transport system with several modes of transport.

The same is loaded on a truck and reaches airport say B. The consignment will be shifted in to flight at B and reaches airport C. On arrival at C, it will be transferred in to truck and reaches railway station D. Thereafter, the consignment will be moved to E by train. Having unloaded at E, it reaches the destination F through manual carrying.

The following Figure display multimodal transport with different agencies. At C, the consignment is moved on private truck to D and finally, it travelled through D to E on train. Ensures Smooth and Safe Transport: Multimodal transport operator not only maintains his own communication links, but also coordinates interchange and onward carriage smoothly at different trans- shipment points.

Provides Faster Transport Service: Multimodal transport system provides faster transport of goods. It reduces the disadvantages of distance from markets and the tying-up of capital.

Saves Transport Costs: Multimodal transport system helps in the reduction of transport costs as single operator completes the entire job of transhipment of goods. Further, the system also helps in the reduction of cargo insurance costs. Improves International Price Competitiveness: As multimodal transport system helps in the reduction of transport costs, it will in turn result in reduced export costs and thereby improves international price competitiveness.

Reduces Burden of Documentation and Formalities: In case of traditional transport system i. However, multimodal transport system reduces the burden of multiple documentation and other formalities as single operator completes the entire job of transshipment of goods.

Thus, the consigner deals with only one operator relating to transport, insurance, loss and damage of goods. All this has become essential, so as to gain competitiveness and to fulfil consignees requirements on costs and quality of the transports.

Moreover, the intermodal transport system also calls for sharing of information systems. Thus, intermodal transport system is said to be an integrated system of transport operations, so as to create an efficient and responsive transport service throughout the international transport chain.

There exists interrelationship between five parties which affect the transportation system. They are 1. The Shipper Sending party or originating party 2. The Consignee Receiving party or Destination party 3. The Carrier 4. The Government 5. The Public There exists interrelationship among the above parties based on their role, perspectives and ownership aspects.

The role and perspectives of each party can be outlined as follows: Shippers and Consignees: The main objective is to transport the goods from origin to desired destination at least possible cost in a specified time limit. The transportation service is expected to fulfil the characteristics such as a No loss or damage of goods, b Correct invoicing, c Predictable transit time, d Specified pickup and delivery times and e Accurate transit information.

Carriers: The important objective is to maximise revenue by minimising costs. The carrier tries to charge the maximum possible rate acceptable to shipper or consignee by minimising the operational costs such as labour, fuel and other incidental charges.

In order to achieve the said objectives, the carrier requires flexibility in pickup and delivery time, so as to consolidate the individual transport needs into bulk economic transport means. Government: The government contemplates to have a stable and efficient transport system, so as to achieve rapid economic growth. The government desires to have an efficient transport system, so as to ensure the availability of various goods at reasonable price. The government affects the transport sector through regulation and promotion.

Regulation can be done through controls, while promotion is possible through incentives. Public: Public are more concerned with transport accessibility, efficiency, costs, pollution and safety measures. Development of transport system to a large extent depends on demand for goods arising from public. Though minimizing transport cost is important goal to consumers, yet trade — off associated with environmental and safety standards also require due consideration.

The above interrelationships can be shown diagrammatically Figure 2. It leads to often conflicts between parties with micro interests namely shippers, consignees and carriers as well as with a macro interest parties namely government and the public.

Finally, conflicts have led to duplication, regulation and restriction of transport services. In order to meet their requirement various types of warehouses came into existence and may be classified as follows: i. Private Warehouses ii. Public Warehouses iii. Government Warehouses iv. Bonded Warehouses v. Co-operative Warehouses i. Private Warehouses: The warehouses, which are owned and managed by the manufacturers or traders to store, exclusively, their own stock of goods are known as private warehouses.

The design and the facilities provided therein are according to the nature of products to be stored. Public Warehouses: The warehouses which are run to store goods of the general public are known as public warehouses.

Anyone can store his goods in these warehouses on payment of rent. An individual, a partnership firm or a company may own these warehouses. To start such warehouses a license from the government is required. The government also regulates the functions and operations of these warehouses. Mostly, these warehouses are used by manufacturers, wholesalers, exporters, importers, government agencies, etc. Government Warehouses: These warehouses are owned, managed and controlled by central or state governments or public corporations or local authorities.

Both government and private enterprises may use these warehouses to store their goods. Bonded Warehouses: These warehouses are owned, managed and controlled by government as well as private agencies. Generators: 2 60KW John Deere. Capacities: Fuel 52, gal, potable water 13, gal, lube oil 1, gal. Range 4, miles. Dual anchor handling winches. RB90 double drum towing machine.

Built for offshore and ice service. Large open aft deck. Crew up to 8. US built, no flag. Operated by the US Navy.

Located Korea. Built , rebuilt , 80′ x 26′, eye-level: 28′, USCG inspected, main engines: 2 Cummins KTAM keel cooled , marine gears: Twin Disc MG , wheels: 70 x 58 – 4 blade, rudders: 2 steering, 2 flanking, accommodations for 8, full galley, 2 heads, electronics: 2 marine radios, marine radar, AIS. Built , ‘ x 30 x Built , ABS class. Main engines: 3 CAT Generators: 2 45 KW Northern Light. Capacities: Fuel 36, gal, lube oil gal, Potable water 8, gal.

Accommodations: 4 berths. Generators: SS Wheels x Fuel capacity: 47, gallons, water capacity: 6, gallons. Smatco tow machine, ft 1. Capstan, hydraulic push winches, full electronics. Accommodations: sleeps 7, 2 heads. Built ,Norway, MCA class.

Dimensions: Class RINA. Bollard pull 15LT. Speed 10 knots. Generators: 2 Cummins S 3. Capacities: Fuel 38, gal, water 16, gal. Accommodations: 10 persons. Navigations, electronics, communications. Built , 60’x22’x7′, 18’x13′ clear deck, GT 86, NT Gear: Twin Disc MG 5.

One engine needs repair or replaced. Built , 31m x 7. Draft: 9’5″. Main engines: 2 new Cat engines with hours each. Generators: 2 new 45 kw generators with hours. Burn rate: 30 to 35 gal per hour with both engines and generators running. Fuel capacity: 24, gals divided up into 2 forward tanks gal each , 2 mid tanks 3, gal each , 2 aft tanks 6, gal.

Potable water: gal, lube oil: gal. Accommodations: Upper deck: 3 bunks for captain and mate, head and shower. Lower deck: Galley, head, shower Running everyday. Draft 7′. Main engines: 2 Cummins QSK Generators: 2 Detroit diesels 40kw.

Capacities: fuel 10, gal, potable water 8, gal, lube oil gal, hydraulic oil gal. Electronics, communications, navigation. New COI as of GT 96, NT Main engines: 2 CAT s, Reintjes gears.

Generators: 2 Detroit kws. Capacities: Fuel 21, gal, lube gal, potable water 7, gal. Winch: Seahorse 50 ‘ of 1. Built , Rebuilt , Class Certified by Canadian Coast Guard.

Max speed: 8 kts, Bollard pull: 13t. Accommodations: Capacity 8 person, 4 berth in 2 cabins. New bottom paint, clean. Currently in drydock. Located Eastern Canada. Built , Class BKI, Built , 2 available, Reduction: TwinDisc 4. Generator: Isuzu 4LE2 21kw. Fuel capacity: 10, gal. Hydraulic fluid gal. Reduction Gears: Twin Disc 4. Generator: Isuzu 4LE2 21kW. Communications and Electronics. Located West Coast US. Built , 65′ x 22′ x 8. Built , 74′ x 26′ x 10′, 8′ draft. Eye level 40′.

Reduction gears: 2 Twin Disc MG 6. Shafts: 2 6″ solid stainless steel. Aux engines: 2 35kw 4-cylinder Cummins. Tow winch: 1 Marquis Single Drum towing winch 50,lb line pull, ‘ 1. Capacities: Fuel 18,gal, Lube gal, hydraulic gal. Accommodations: 2 berths lower level each sleeps 2 , master quarter upper level sleeps 2 , 2 restrooms. Built , 65′ x 22′, 6′ draft, 22’ eye level. Ref Built , Built , rebuilt and , Generators: 2 28kw.

Accommodations for Welded Steel construction, square bow and stern. Both ends raked. Main engines: 2 Cummins diesels HP. Twin disc gears, 4. Electric start. Keel cooled. Generators: 2 30kw Kubota generators powered by 4-cylinder diesel engines.

Capacities: Fuel 7, gal, Potable water 20, gal. Accommodations: 4-man bunk forward, 4-man bunk center, 2-man bunk aft, 2-man bunk pilot house. Passengers Full galley. Fire extinguishers. Life rafts, life ring. Coast Guard sanitation device. Just out of drydock Fresh anodes, fresh paint on bottom and sides. This vessel serviced the inland oil rigs and Gulf coast rigs as a standby motor vessel and quarters boat. Built , extensively rebuilt , very excellent condition.

Built , rebuilt , Northlights diesel with Delco 20 kw generator. Galley, head, crew quarters. Aft twin rudders. Communication and navigation equipment. Built , Class Operating draft: 6′. Eye level 19′. Deck space: 18′ x 18′. GT 68, NT Hydraulic steering. Speed: 10mph. Capacities: Fuel 10, gal, potable water 10, gal, lube oil 55 gal. Navigation, electronics, communications.

Manufactured , 66′ x 26′ x 7. Manufactured , 60′ x 22′ x 7. Built , rebuilt , 62′ x 22′ x 6′ Light draft: 6′, Draft loaded: 9′. Total height light 36′. Main engines: 2 QSM II Cummins diesel engine low hours , hydraulic winches operated from pilot house, late model generator, Fuel capacity: 7, gal, water 3, gal. Total bunks: 6. Good condition, in service as of GT 81, NT Elevated pilot house. Total height: 38′, eye level 28′.

Main engines: 2 Cummins twin hp with TwinDisc 4. Wheel: 48x Auxiliary: 2 Cummins Onan. Capacities: fuel 6, gal, water 5, gal. Lube oil gal. Steel work drydock November , Subchapter M. Built , Mexican flag. Steel hull. Single screw. Cruise speed: 8. Located West Coast Mexico.

Mexican flag. Steel hull, GT , NT The underdeck is reachable by a ramp where a forklift can transfer cargo to lower deck. The lower deck can handle tons cargo. Currently being used for dry cargo. Container capacity: TEU.

Reefer plant: 2 zones, F, 5 carrier freon compressors. This is owned and operated by a company that has its own shipyard and keeps their equipment in very excellent condition. In the boat was used in Alaska to carry fish from Alaska to Seattle, Washington. It is currently being used for dry cargo. Built , 55′ x 21′ x 6′, GT 68, NT Boat was hauled Feb Scraped, bottom painted, new zincs.

Work done on keel cooler, plumbing system, box redone, some gearing reworked, new tiller system. We have learned that the 2 engines are being completely rebuilt by the owner that has experience and well qualified mechanics. This will be an in hull rebuild. The shafts were recently done.

The price of the boat would go up after the rebuild and we possibly can get the approximation of increase in cost soon. Located Great Lakes. Built , rebuilt , 58′ x 20′, twin screw, main engines 2 12V71 Detroit, 40 kw generator, for charter only, located Louisiana. Built , 45′ x Draft 5. Height: 37′. GT 37, NT Displacement: 48t.

Steel hull, keel cooler. Fuel capacity: 11, gal. Full load capacity 37 tons. Built , 40′ x 13′ x 5. Built , converted to lugger GT 87, NT Deck space: 24′ x 14′ wood deck. Visibility 25′. Free running speed 10 knots. Wheel and shaft: 44×33 SS witch 3″ shaft. Auxiliary: 1 GM with 30kw, 1 GM with 20kw. Capacities: fuel 9, gal, water 13, gal, lube oil 55 gal. Quarters: 3 bunks, full kitchen and bath. Crew: 2 or more when needed. Manufactured , 62′ x 25′ x 8. The extensive Review Article by Kasavajjula et al.

In particular, Hong Li et al. To improve stability of the lithium anode, several approaches of installing a protective layer have been suggested.

These cracks expose the Si surface to an electrolyte, causing decomposition and the formation of a solid electrolyte interphase SEI on the new Si surface crumpled graphene encapsulated Si nanoparticles. Electrolyte alternatives have also played a significant role, for example the lithium polymer battery.

Polymer electrolytes are promising for minimizing the dendrite formation of lithium. Polymers are supposed to prevent short circuits and maintain conductivity. The ions in the electrolyte diffuse because there are small changes in the electrolyte concentration.

Linear diffusion is only considered here. The change in concentration c , as a function of time t and distance x , is. In this equation, D is the diffusion coefficient for the lithium ion. It has a value of 7. Li-ion cells as distinct from entire batteries are available in various shapes, which can generally be divided into four groups: []. Cells with a cylindrical shape are made in a characteristic ” swiss roll ” manner known as a “jelly roll” in the US , which means it is a single long ‘sandwich’ of the positive electrode, separator, negative electrode, and separator rolled into a single spool.

The shape of the jelly roll in cylindrical cells can be approximated by an Archimedean spiral. One advantage of cylindrical cells compared to cells with stacked electrodes is the faster production speed. One disadvantage of cylindrical cells can be a large radial temperature gradient inside the cells developing at high discharge currents. The absence of a case gives pouch cells the highest gravimetric energy density; however, for many practical applications they still require an external means of containment to prevent expansion when their state of charge SOC level is high, [] and for general structural stability of the battery pack of which they are part.

Both rigid plastic and pouch-style cells are sometimes referred to as prismatic cells due to their rectangular shapes. Each form factor has characteristic advantages and disadvantages for EV use.

Since , several research groups have announced demonstrations of lithium-ion flow batteries that suspend the cathode or anode material in an aqueous or organic solution. In , Panasonic created the smallest Li-ion cell. It is pin shaped. It has a diameter of 3. A battery also called a battery pack consists of multiple connected lithium-ion cells. Battery packs for large consumer electronics like laptop computers also contain temperature sensors, voltage regulator circuits, voltage taps , and charge-state monitors.

These components minimize safety risks like overheating and short circuiting. The vast majority of commercial Li-ion batteries are used in consumer electronics and electric vehicles. More niche uses include backup power in telecommunications applications.

Because lithium-ion batteries can have a variety of positive and negative electrode materials, the energy density and voltage vary accordingly. The open-circuit voltage is higher than in aqueous batteries such as lead—acid , nickel—metal hydride and nickel-cadmium. Eventually, increasing resistance will leave the battery in a state such that it can no longer support the normal discharge currents requested of it without unacceptable voltage drop or overheating.

Batteries with a lithium iron phosphate positive and graphite negative electrodes have a nominal open-circuit voltage of 3. Lithium nickel manganese cobalt NMC oxide positives with graphite negatives have a 3. The charging procedure is performed at constant voltage with current-limiting circuitry i. In the past, lithium-ion batteries could not be fast-charged and needed at least two hours to fully charge.

Current-generation cells can be fully charged in 45 minutes or less. In researchers demonstrated a small mAh capacity battery charged to 68 percent capacity in two minutes and a 3, mAh battery charged to 48 percent capacity in five minutes.

The device employed heteroatoms bonded to graphite molecules in the anode. Performance of manufactured batteries has improved over time. For example, from to the energy capacity per price of lithium ion batteries improved more than ten-fold, from 0. Differently sized cells with similar chemistry can also have different energy densities. Life of a lithium-ion battery is typically defined as the number of full charge-discharge cycles to reach a failure threshold in terms of capacity loss or impedance rise.

Calendar life is used to represent the whole life cycle of battery involving both the cycle and inactive storage operations. Battery cycle life is affected by many different stress factors including temperature, discharge current, charge current, and state of charge ranges depth of discharge. To avoid this confusion, researchers sometimes use cumulative discharge [] defined as the total amount of charge Ah delivered by the battery during its entire life or equivalent full cycles, [] which represents the summation of the partial cycles as fractions of a full charge-discharge cycle.

From this one can calculate the cost per kWh of the energy including the cost of charging. Over their lifespan batteries degrade gradually leading to reduced capacity due to a variety of chemical and mechanical changes to the electrodes. In contrast, the calendar life of LiFePO 4 cells is not affected by high charge states.

The layer is composed of electrolyte — carbonate reduction products that serve both as an ionic conductor and electronic insulator. It forms on both the anode and cathode termed a CEI and influences many performance parameters. Under typical operating conditions, the layer reaches a fixed thickness after the first few charges formation cycles , allowing the device to operate for years. However, operation outside typical parameters can degrade the electrochemical interfaces via several reactions.

Formation of the SEI consumes lithium ions, reducing the overall charge and discharge efficiency of the electrode material. Five common exothermic degradation reactions can occur: [].

Depending on the electrolyte and additives, [] common components of the SEI layer that forms on the anode include a mixture of lithium oxide, lithium fluoride and semicarbonates e. At elevated temperatures, alkyl carbonates in the electrolyte decompose into insoluble species such as Li 2 CO 3 that increases the film thickness.

This increases cell impedance and reduces cycling capacity. The randomness of the metallic lithium embedded in the anode during intercalation results in dendrites formation. Over time the dendrites can accumulate and pierce the separator, causing a short circuit leading to heat, fire or explosion. This process is referred to as thermal runaway. The copper anode current collector can dissolve into the electrolyte.

Electrolyte degradation mechanisms include hydrolysis and thermal decomposition. Under typical conditions, the equilibrium lies far to the left.

However the presence of water generates substantial LiF, an insoluble, electrically insulating product. LiF binds to the anode surface, increasing film thickness. PF 5 reacts with water to form hydrofluoric acid HF and phosphorus oxyfluoride.

Phosphorus oxyfluoride in turn reacts to form additional HF and difluorohydroxy phosphoric acid. HF converts the rigid SEI film into a fragile one.

On the cathode, the carbonate solvent can then diffuse onto the cathode oxide over time, releasing heat and potentially causing thermal runaway. Significant decomposition occurs at higher temperatures. Material loss of the spinel results in capacity fade.

As with the anode, excessive SEI formation forms an insulator resulting in capacity fade and uneven current distribution. Lithium-ion batteries can be a safety hazard since they contain a flammable electrolyte and may become pressurized if they become damaged.

A battery cell charged too quickly could cause a short circuit , leading to explosions and fires. Lithium-ion batteries have a flammable liquid electrolyte. Short-circuiting a battery will cause the cell to overheat and possibly to catch fire. Around , large lithium-ion batteries were introduced in place of other chemistries to power systems on some aircraft; as of January [update] , there had been at least four serious lithium-ion battery fires, or smoke, on the Boeing passenger aircraft, introduced in , which did not cause crashes but had the potential to do so.

If a lithium-ion battery is damaged, crushed, or is subjected to a higher electrical load without having overcharge protection, then problems may arise. External short circuit can trigger a battery explosion. If overheated or overcharged, Li-ion batteries may suffer thermal runaway and cell rupture. To reduce these risks, many lithium-ion cells and battery packs contain fail-safe circuitry that disconnects the battery when its voltage is outside the safe range of 3—4.

Lithium battery packs, whether constructed by a vendor or the end-user, without effective battery management circuits are susceptible to these issues. Poorly designed or implemented battery management circuits also may cause problems; it is difficult to be certain that any particular battery management circuitry is properly implemented. Lithium-ion cells are susceptible to stress by voltage ranges outside of safe ones between 2.

Exceeding this voltage range results in premature aging and in safety risks due to the reactive components in the cells. Other safety features are required [ by whom? These features are required because the negative electrode produces heat during use, while the positive electrode may produce oxygen. However, these additional devices occupy space inside the cells, add points of failure, and may irreversibly disable the cell when activated.

Also, these features can not be applied to all kinds of cells, e. High current cells must not produce excessive heat or oxygen, lest there be a failure, possibly violent. Instead, they must be equipped with internal thermal fuses which act before the anode and cathode reach their thermal limits. Replacing the lithium cobalt oxide positive electrode material in lithium-ion batteries with a lithium metal phosphate such as lithium iron phosphate LFP improves cycle counts, shelf life and safety, but lowers capacity.

As of , these ‘safer’ lithium-ion batteries were mainly used in electric cars and other large-capacity battery applications, where safety is critical. IATA estimates that over a billion lithium and lithium-ion cells are flown each year. Extraction of lithium, nickel, and cobalt, manufacture of solvents, and mining byproducts present significant environmental and health hazards.

Cobalt for Li-ion batteries is largely mined in the Congo see also Mining industry of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Manufacturing a kg of Li-ion battery takes about 67 megajoule MJ of energy. Since Li-ion batteries contain less toxic metals than other types of batteries which may contain lead or cadmium, [54] they are generally categorized as non-hazardous waste.

Li-ion battery elements including iron, copper, nickel and cobalt are considered safe for incinerators and landfills. Lithium is less expensive than other metals used and is rarely recycled, [] but recycling could prevent a future shortage. Accumulation of battery waste presents technical challenges and health hazards.

Re-use of the battery is preferred over complete recycling as there is less embodied energy in the process. As these batteries are a lot more reactive than classical vehicle waste like tire rubber, there are significant risks to stockpiling used batteries. The pyrometallurgical method uses a high-temperature furnace to reduce the components of the metal oxides in the battery to an alloy of Co, Cu, Fe, and Ni.

This is the most common and commercially established method of recycling and can be combined with other similar batteries to increase smelting efficiency and improve thermodynamics. The metal current collectors aid the smelting process, allowing whole cells or modules to be melted at once. At high temperatures, the polymers used to hold the battery cells together burn off and the metal alloy can be separated through a hydrometallurgical process into its separate components.

The slag can be further refined or used in the cement industry. The process is relatively risk-free and the exothermic reaction from polymer combustion reduces the required input energy. However, in the process, the plastics, electrolytes , and lithium salts will be lost. This method involves the use of aqueous solutions to remove the desired metals from the cathode. The most common reagent is sulfuric acid.

Once leached , the metals can be extracted through precipitation reactions controlled by changing the pH level of the solution. Cobalt, the most expensive metal, can then be recovered in the form of sulfate, oxalate, hydroxide, or carbonate. In these procedures, concentrations of the various leached metals are premeasured to match the target cathode and then the cathodes are directly synthesized.

The main issues with this method, however, is that a large volume of solvent is required and the high cost of neutralization. Although it’s easy to shred up the battery, mixing the cathode and anode at the beginning complicates the process, so they will also need to be separated. Unfortunately, the current design of batteries makes the process extremely complex and it is difficult to separate the metals in a closed-loop battery system.

Shredding and dissolving may occur at different locations. Direct recycling is the removal of the cathode or anode from the electrode, reconditioned, and then reused in a new battery. Mixed metal-oxides can be added to the new electrode with very little change to the crystal morphology. The process generally involves the addition of new lithium to replenish the loss of lithium in the cathode due to degradation from cycling.

Cathode strips are obtained from the dismantled batteries, then soaked in NMP , and undergo sonication to remove excess deposits. This method is extremely cost-effective for noncobalt-based batteries as the raw materials do not make up the bulk of the cost. Direct recycling avoids the time-consuming and expensive purification steps, which is great for low-cost cathodes such as LiMn 2 O 4 and LiFePO 4.

For these cheaper cathodes, most of the cost, embedded energy, and carbon footprint is associated with the manufacturing rather than the raw material. The drawback of the method lies in the condition of the retired battery. In the case where the battery is relatively healthy, direct recycling can cheaply restore its properties. However, for batteries where the state of charge is low, direct recycling may not be worth the investment.

The process must also be tailored to the specific cathode composition, and therefore the process must be configured to one type of battery at a time. Extraction of raw materials for lithium ion batteries may present dangers to local people, especially land-based indigenous populations.

Cobalt sourced from the Democratic Republic of the Congo is often mined by workers using hand tools with few safety precautions, resulting in frequent injuries and deaths. A study of relationships between lithium extraction companies and indigenous peoples in Argentina indicated that the state may not have protected indigenous peoples’ right to free prior and informed consent , and that extraction companies generally controlled community access to information and set the terms for discussion of the projects and benefit sharing.

Development of the Thacker Pass lithium mine in Nevada, USA has met with protests and lawsuits from several indigenous tribes who have said they were not provided free prior and informed consent and that the project threatens cultural and sacred sites. Researchers are actively working to improve the power density, safety, cycle durability battery life , recharge time, cost, flexibility, and other characteristics, as well as research methods and uses, of these batteries.

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Rechargeable battery type. For the metal element, see Lithium. Main article: History of the lithium-ion battery. See also: Plug-in electric vehicle fire incidents. Further information: Environmental impacts of lithium-ion batteries. Main article: Battery recycling.

Main article: Research in lithium-ion batteries. Archived from the original on 13 April Retrieved 23 April Retrieved 31 January Archived from the original PDF on 17 August Retrieved 7 October Retrieved 2 July Retrieved 11 June Bloomberg New Energy Finance. Retrieved 6 January ISBN S2CID Retrieved 5 August High Energy Lithium Ion Cells”.

Commercial lithium ion cells are now optimised for either high energy density or high power density. There is a trade off in cell design between the power and energy requirements. Retrieved 10 October Nobel Prize. Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 1 January Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. Retrieved 29 July National Institute for Materials Science.

Retrieved 9 April National Academy of Engineering. Retrieved 12 October Archived from the original on 9 May E for Electric. Event occurs at —